Solution Tree: Dr. Marzano on Instructional Strategies
Instructional Strategies and Technology for Teachers and Students
The 21st century classroom allows for the implementation of technology tools that enable the teacher to use a variety of instructional strategies; and can promote a student-centered and or teacher-centered classroom that meets the needs of all students. “An instructional strategy is a way of involving learners in a particular teaching–learning activity. We describe strategies as a procedure of instruction selected to help learners achieve their objective or internalize content” (Lowther, Russell, Smaldino, 2008, page 18). Strategies that use technology have proven to be engage and motive students to such a degree that they are empowered 21st century learners. Strategies can be based on one learning theory or a combination of learning theories.
” How teachers view the role of technology and media in the classroom depends very much on their beliefs about how people learn. Over the past half-century there have been several dominant theories of learning. Each has implications for instruction in general and for the use of technology and media in particular” (Lowther, Russell, Smaldino, 2008, page 10).
The dominant learning perspectives will be briefly described and suggested strategies will be provided. The tables in this document serve as a snap shot of sample strategies with possible advantages, limitations, technology enhancements, and impact on student learning.
“Cognitivism focuses on the inner mental activities – opening the “black box” of the human mind is valuable and necessary for understanding how people learn. Mental processes such as thinking, memory, knowing, and problem-solving need to be explored. Knowledge can be seen as schema or symbolic mental constructions. Learning is defined as change in a learner’s schemata" (Cognitivism, n.d.). See table 1.
“Constructivism learning theory suggests that “the learner is an information constructor. People actively construct or create their own subjective representations of objective reality. New information is linked to prior knowledge, thus mental representations are subjective” (Constructivism, n.d.). See table 2.
“Behaviorists refuse to speculate on what goes on internally when learning takes place. They rely solely on observable behaviors. As a result, they are more comfortable explaining relatively simple learning tasks. Because of this posture, behaviorism has limited applications in teaching higher-level skills. For example, behaviorists are reluctant to make inferences about how learners process information” (Lowther, Russell, Smaldino, page 11). See table 3.
Social-Psychological Perspective looks at the social organization of the learning environment. Social organization factor such as group structure, authority structure and the reward system are all considered. “Researchers such as Robert Slavin (1990) have taken the position that cooperative learning is both more effective and more socially beneficial than competitive and individualistic learning” (Lowther, Russell, Smaldino, page 11). See table 4.
Table 1
Cognitivist Learning Perspective Strategies
Problem-based* | Discovery** | Digital games*** | Discussion* | Concept mapping**** | |
Advantages | real world problems, student in control | scaffold, engaging, repeated steps | learner focused, scaffold, chunking of concepts | opportunity for all students, interesting, new ideas | organization of research and thoughts |
Limitations | students must be self- motivated, clear objectives and anticipated outcomes, time consuming to prepare and implement | misunderstanding of concept, time consuming to prepare and implement | lack gaming or computer skills | not all students participate, challenging questions | staying focused on topic, lack of 21st century skills |
Technology | web-quest, online collaboration, research, communicate with expert | video, audio, internet research | adventure game software and websites | video, audio, multimedia | online mind mapping tools, internet research |
Impact | development of critical thinking skills, awareness of real word problems and solutions | promotes inquiry | discovery of content, increased 21st century skills | promotes interest, student questions, | increased 21st century skills, discovery of new information |
Centered | student | teacher | teacher | teacher | teacher |
* McMahoun, T., O’Neill, G. (2005). Student-centered learning: What does it mean for students
lectures. Retrieved September 12, 2010, from http://www.aishe.org/readings/2005-1/oneill-mcmahon-Tues_19th_Oct_SCL.html
** Lowther, D. L., Russell, J. D., Smaldino, S. E. (2008). Instructional technology and media for learning (9th ed). New Jersey: Merrill Prentice Hall
*** Gros, B. (2007). Digital games in education: the design of games-based learning
environments. Journal of Research on Technology in Education, 40(1), 23-38. Retrieved September 12, 2010, from http://www.iste.org/Content/NavigationMenu/EducatorResources/YourLearningJourney/CreativityandInnovation/jrte-40-1-023-gro.pdf
**** What are concept maps?. (n.d.). Retrieved September 12, 2010, from
Table 2
Constructivist Learning Perspective Strategies
Problem solving* | Collaborative groups* | Digital games** | |
Advantages | engaging, level of complexity increases overtime | promotes social interaction, varying ability in groups in beneficial for learning, groups can be formal or informal | Setting focused, social interaction, culture, engaging |
Limitations | time consuming, difficult to create, requires debriefing | work is not divided evenly by number and/or ability, social norms are not well developed, over use | students must be self-motivated, lack gaming or computer skills |
Technology | internet research, online collaboration | internet research, Power Point, Movie Maker, VoiceThread | simulation and strategy game software and websites |
Impact | development of critical thinking skills | lifelong social skills, increased 21st century skills | increased 21st century skills |
Centered | student | student | student |
*Lowther, D. L., Russell, J. D., Smaldino, S. E. (2008). Instructional technology and media for learning (9th ed). New Jersey: Merrill Prentice Hall
**Gros, B. (2007). Digital games in education: the design of games-based learning
environments. Journal of Research on Technology in Education, 40(1), 23-38. Retrieved September 12, 2010, from http://www.iste.org/Content/NavigationMenu/EducatorResources/YourLearningJourney/CreativityandInnovation/jrte-40-1-023-gro.pdf
Table 3
Behaviorist Learning Perspective Strategies
Drill and Practice* | Self-Study | Digital games** | Presentation* | |
Advantages | reinforcement, practice, feedback | self-paced, individualized | focus on behavior with reinforcements | one presentation, development of note taking skills |
Limitations | boring, lack of instruction, lacks high level skills | lack of directions, boring, student must be self- motivated | teacher controls input, lacks high level skills | hear presentation only once, boring, keeping notes |
Technology | drill and practice software and websites | video, audio, | action gaming software and websites | PowerPoint, Movie Maker, VoiceThread, images, video, audio |
Impact | mastery of skills | ownership of learning | mastery of skills | all information as once, leads to interest |
Centered | teacher | student | teacher | teacher |
*Lowther, D. L., Russell, J. D., Smaldino, S. E. (2008). Instructional technology and media for learning (9th ed). New Jersey: Merrill Prentice Hall
**Gros, B. (2007). Digital games in education: the design of games-based learning
environments. Journal of Research on Technology in Education, 40(1), 23-38. Retrieved September 12, 2010, from http://www.iste.org/Content/NavigationMenu/EducatorResources/YourLearningJourney/CreativityandInnovation/jrte-40-1-023-gro.pdf
Table 4
Social-Psychological Learning Perspective Strategies
Collaborative groups* | Digital games** | Think aloud | Think-pair-share*** | |
Advantages | promotes social interaction, varying ability in groups in beneficial for learning, groups can be formal or informal | social interaction, setting focused, meaningful, engaging | students hear the thought process | ease of use, social interaction, formulate and share ideas, think time |
Limitations | work is not divided evenly by number and/or ability, social norms are not well developed, over use | lack gaming or computer skills | overuse, lack attention, boring | overuse, not all students share |
Technology | internet research, Power Point, Movie Maker, VoiceThread | online game rooms | Power Point, Movie Maker, VoiceThread | online communication, electronic note taking |
Impact | lifelong social skills, increased 21st century skills | increased 21st century skills, lifelong social skills | Clear how to steps, compare though processes | lifelong social skills, conceptual understanding, draw conclusions, consider other points of view |
Centered | student | student | teacher | student |
*Lowther, D. L., Russell, J. D., Smaldino, S. E. (2008). Instructional technology and media for
learning (9th ed). New Jersey: Merrill Prentice Hall
**Gros, B. (2007). Digital games in education: the design of games-based learning
environments. Journal of Research on Technology in Education, 40(1), 23-38. Retrieved September 12, 2010, from http://www.iste.org/Content/NavigationMenu/EducatorResources/YourLearningJourney/CreativityandInnovation/jrte-40-1-023-gro.pdf
***Think-pair-share. (n.d.) Retrieved September 14, 2010, from
References
Cognitivism. (n.d.). Retrieved September 12, 2010, from
Constructivism. (n.d.). Retrieved September 12, 2010, from
Gros, B. (2007). Digital games in education: the design of games-based learning
environments. Journal of Research on Technology in Education, 40(1), 23-38.
Retrieved September 12, 2010, from
Lowther, D. L., Russell, J. D., Smaldino, S. E. (2008). Instructional technology and media for
learning (9th ed). New Jersey: Merrill Prentice Hall
McMahoun, T., O’Neill, G. (2005). Student-centered learning: What does it mean for students
lectures. Retrieved September 12, 2010, from http://www.aishe.org/readings/2005-1/oneill-mcmahon-Tues_19th_Oct_SCL.html
Think-pair-share. (n.d.) Retrieved September 14, 2010, from
What are concept maps?. (n.d.). Retrieved September 12, 2010, from
